Ch. 4: Job Analysis and Job Design

Learning outcomes

1. Explain the strategic value and impact of job analysis for an organization.
2. Describe how HRM uses job analysis information.
3. Explain the categories of task-based and skill (competency)-based analysis.
4. Describe the content of job descriptions and job specifications.
5. Discuss examples of factors considered in job design.

4.1 Strategy and job analysis: jobs, positions and job families

A job is a paid role for carrying out a task or piece of work, usually made up of related or similar tasks. The same job can be held by many people (e.g. customer service representative). A position is also paid, but it is a set of responsibilities given to one person with particular duties (e.g. office manager). When similar positions are grouped, they make up a job family (e.g. bookkeeper, accounts payable clerk, junior accountant, senior accountant, financial controller). HR managers gather data on jobs, positions and job families for HR planning, recruitment, training and development, performance appraisal, compensation and legal compliance.

Strategic impact of job analysis. Job analysis data is used for:

• Compensation: pay should mirror what the employee is worth to the firm, judged on KSAs, responsibilities and experience.
• Performance appraisals: staff are assessed on how well they actually do the job.
• Recruitment: before a vacancy can be advertised, the job specifications must be in place; they list the qualifications needed as KSAs (knowledge, skills, abilities).
• Laws and legislation: the data make sure that job descriptions and specifications line up with the rate of pay. Paying someone below the level of the skills they bring can count as discrimination.
• Selection: the job description lets HR, managers and employees get to know the job.
• Training and development: HR has to track trends and the skills that will be needed later, and keep employees' skills current so the firm remains competitive.

Because of all these uses, job analysis is one of the most important HRM activities. It shapes hiring, motivation and employee happiness, and separates progressive, innovative companies from those that hire poorly, offer little training or pay below market worth.

4.2 Job analysis

Job analysis deals with questions like: Which specific elements make up the job? Which physical and mental tasks does the worker carry out? When, where and in what conditions is the work done? It requires research: looking at the duties of current staff, examining job descriptions for comparable jobs at competitors and studying new duties the position has to take on. The findings are used for job design, the structure of work and process engineering, and the structure of teams and departments.

How HRM uses job analysis:

• Writing accurate job postings that attract strong candidates.
• Identifying critical KSAs to use as hiring criteria.
• Identifying risks connected to job responsibilities to prevent accidents.
• Designing performance appraisal systems that measure actual job elements.
• Developing equitable compensation plans.
• Designing training programs aimed at specific, relevant KSAs.

The job as unit of analysis

Every job must at some point be examined in detail: its important tasks, how they are carried out and which human qualities they need. As organizations evolve, HR must capture new job elements and drop those that are no longer relevant; otherwise HR processes become inefficient. Example: ten years ago a professor mainly needed PowerPoint; now Zoom, Moodle and many other platforms are required. Once HR captures this change, it can select professors on technological skill, train them on platforms and reward those who embrace the shift.

Apart from analysing single jobs, research also examines mega trends in the way jobs develop. These reveal new job features and change that keeps speeding up. Artificial intelligence is beginning to take over and improve tasks: self-driving vehicles could affect truck drivers, voice recognition already deals with customer service, and computers might even diagnose illness better than doctors. The book concludes that the AI revolution is not on its way, because it has already arrived.

Step 1: Determine the information needed

Information from job analysis can be split into two groups: what a job demands in terms of tasks (task demands) and which human attributes a person needs to meet them. As a result there are two kinds of analysis.

The task statement is the single most important element of task analysis. It should give a clear, complete picture of what is done, how and why. A complete task statement answers four questions:

1. Performs what action? (action verb)
2. To whom or what? (object of the verb)
3. What is the result, or why is it needed? (expected output)
4. Using what tools, equipment, work aids or processes?

Guidelines for writing: start every statement with a verb, leave out abbreviations, use everyday terms and phrase it so that a person unfamiliar with the department still grasps what is done. The book gives examples such as analysing, scanning, testing and auditing the Computer Lab network; automating and producing online reports for the Program Office with XYZ System; and copying, collating, printing and binding the Program Office's technical publications.

Step 2: Identify the sources of data

Step 3: Determine methods of data collection

The most effective approach combines direct observation with information from the most qualified incumbents via questionnaires or interviews.

Step 4: Evaluate and verify the data

Collected information is validated with the workers doing the job or with the immediate supervisor. This checks accuracy and also increases employees' acceptance of the job analysis results.

Step 5: Use the data to produce a job analysis report

After the analysis the job description is written. Reports can be very detailed technical documents (the book mentions an FAA report on safety-related occupations and one on amusement and recreation attendants).

Job analysis: the process that defines job relatedness

Jobs include essential duties as well as duties that are desirable or preferred yet non-essential. Job analysis distinguishes between them in an objective way, so the employer can explain why a given task is essential. This forms the ground for deciding whether an employment decision discriminates. For instance, requiring "frequent travel" has a disproportionate effect on women who carry heavy caregiving duties. When travel is not an essential duty, this disparate impact renders it illegal, and even when it is essential the employer still has to accommodate needs related to family status. Job analysis aims to set out, objectively, the job relatedness of training, selection, compensation and appraisal. An employer wanting to stay within the law can ask:

1. Is the job analysis current, or does it need updating?
2. Does it accurately reflect the employer's needs and expectations?
3. Which requirements are essential and which are non-essential?

4.3 Job description

A job description is usually concise but should always contain:

1. Date
2. Job title
3. National Occupation Classification (NOC) code
4. Job functions (tasks performed)
5. KSA: what the employee must know and be able to do, plus personal attributes
6. Education and experience required
7. Physical requirements (e.g. ability to lift, see or hear)

Once written, it can be adapted for recruiting or filed in HR records. Most importantly it informs the employee and manager about the role and sets expectations.

National Occupation Classification (NOC) code. The NOC offers a uniform set of terms for describing the work Canadians do. It serves as a framework to (1) define work and jobs in Canada and gather statistics on them, (2) study trends in the labour market, and (3) derive useful information for career planning. Examples: Human Resources Manager (NOC 0112), responsible for planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating HR operations and policies; pet-sitter (NOC 6163), with labour market data on the government Job Bank.

Tips for writing a good job description:

• Cover the relevant details: title, department, summary of the job, who the person reports to, duties and responsibilities, and working conditions.
• See it as a snapshot of the job; don't try to fit every aspect in.
• Communicate clearly and concisely; avoid acronyms.
• Make it interesting to the right candidate.
• Proofread it.

Example (Cashier, from O*NET). Title: Cashier; reports to: Manager; department: Customer Service. Summary: knowledge of customer service, business principles, mathematics and office systems; courteous, active listening. Duties include answering customer questions, receiving payments (cash, cheque, credit card, vouchers, debit), helping customers find products, issuing receipts, refunds and change, greeting customers, using operating system software, reconciling sales records and processing transactions. Working conditions: safe, well-ventilated retail space; shift and some weekend work.

Job specifications

In the cashier example the specification lists: education (high school), experience (some knowledge of consumer goods and services), knowledge areas (customer and personal service, administration and management, mathematics, administrative procedures), technology skills (database software, office suite, operating system and POS terminal), and skills such as service orientation, active listening, speaking, mathematics and social perceptiveness (being aware of others' reactions and understanding why they react as they do).

4.4 Job design

Through job design organizations can raise productivity and employee satisfaction. Job analysis describes existing jobs; job design is needed when workflow or organizational demands change, or when the organization expands and needs new jobs. This is linked to business process re-engineering (BPE/BPR): defining how work will be performed and which tasks a job requires. Job redesign means changing an existing job design. Designing jobs well requires thorough knowledge of the job (via job analysis) and of its place in the work unit's workflow.

Job Characteristics Model (Hackman and Oldham, 1975)

Among the most influential efforts to build jobs that motivate more. Five core job characteristics produce three critical psychological states, and these in turn produce work outcomes.

Autonomy increases motivation; autonomous employees can be more effective, are less likely to take a "this is not my job" attitude, and are more proactive and creative (Morgeson et al., 2005), which can raise company performance.

Feedback is more controversial. Simply having feedback does not create motivation. One review showed that in roughly one third of cases, feedback in fact made performance worse (Kluger and DeNisi, 1996). Its motivating effect depends on whether it is positive or negative, whether the receiver is open to it and how it is delivered.

These states are linked to outcomes: greater general job satisfaction, internal motivation, better performance, and less turnover and absenteeism (Johns et al., 1992; Humphrey et al., 2007).

Perception matters. The five characteristics are not objective features; two people in the same job can perceive them very differently: motivating potential is "in the eye of the beholder". Bad news: a job designed to motivate may not motivate everyone. Good news: managers can raise motivation by changing how employees view the job (e.g. telling bricklayers they are building a home for others raises perceived significance).

4.5 Approaches to job design

Industrial engineering approach. Classical industrial engineering seeks the simplest way to structure work to maximize efficiency: lower costs, more output per worker, and in theory less physical and mental fatigue. It reduces job complexity so that almost anyone can be trained quickly, producing highly specialized and repetitive jobs. It analyzes work methods and sets time standards. The scientific method seeks the "one best way" through time-and-motion studies of the most efficient movements; then workers are selected on ability, trained in the one best way, and motivated with pay structures. Drawback: jobs can become so simple and repetitive that workers get bored and find the work meaningless, so most organizations combine it with other approaches.

Job enlargement increases the scope of a job by extending the range of duties and responsibilities, combining activities at the same hierarchical level (horizontal expansion). Example: an executive who performed three activities gets four more and now performs seven, all at the same level. The goal is more variety, more interest and fuller use of skills. Evidence: it relates positively to satisfaction, higher quality customer service and catching mistakes (Campion and McClelland, 1991). But the type matters: adding very simple tasks lowered satisfaction and led to fewer errors caught; adding tasks that require knowledge in different areas had more positive effects (Campion and McClelland, 1993).

Job enrichment adds interest and challenge to work by offering more responsibility and more chances to make an impact than the job first offered, which opens space for professional growth and recognition (vertical). Used instead of specialization, it can lower turnover, raise productivity and cut absences (McEvoy and Cascio, 1985; Locke et al., 1976), since staff who have authority can work more efficiently, drop pointless tasks and use shortcuts. Drawbacks: staff may become dissatisfied if they expect extra pay for added responsibility and do not receive it, and it is not for everyone, as people who do not want control can get frustrated (Cherrington and Lynn, 1980; Hulin and Blood, 1968).

Ergonomics. Injuries (slips, falls, machines, vehicles, fires, repetitive strain, overexertion) are costly through lost productivity and medical expenses. The Government of Canada describes ergonomics as the science of adapting work to the worker and products to the people who use them. Since people differ in their capabilities, preferences and limits, ergonomics makes work safe and effective, raises safety and comfort, and makes sure the job suits the person (e.g. a properly arranged computer workstation).

4.6 Contemporary issues in job design

Five trends: artificial intelligence, team-based work, telecommuting, flexible hours and alternative work patterns.

Telecommuting (working from home). Before COVID-19 there was resistance because of perceived lack of control and supervision. The pandemic made it the normal way of working almost overnight; organizations now see it as a normal alternative for many jobs, with major future effects on organizations and society.

Team-based work. Because of task complexity, the need to combine perspectives and disciplines, or sheer volume, work is increasingly organized around teams. Teamwork is a set of tasks performed by individuals who collaborate to achieve a common objective (a product, service, report or decision). Unlike individual work it involves shared responsibility for the outcome. Effective teams share five characteristics:

• Mutual trust: every member is confident that the others place the team's interest above their own priorities.
• Rewards: achievements are recognized and behaviour that supports the team is reinforced.
• Shared values: beliefs and principles the members hold in common about how and why they work together.
• Skill/talent: together, the members have the abilities to carry out the tasks and to work productively with each other.
• Inspiring vision: a clear sense of direction that motivates members to commit.

Collaborative technologies support team-based work regardless of members' locations.

Flex time lets employees choose when their workday starts and ends, as long as they work the required hours per day or week. There are usually core hours when everyone must be present (late morning or early afternoon). Employee advantage: scheduling work around life activities and working at one's most productive time. Employer advantage: a longer operating day. Example: a company open 8:30 to 4:30 (8 hours) switches to 6:30 to 6:30 (12 hours): four extra hours, which is 50% more than the original 8 hours (the book calls this "a 1/3 longer day", which is only correct if you compare the 4 hours with the new 12-hour day); employees start between 6:30 and 8:30, leave between 2:30 and 6:30, with core hours 8:30 to 2:30.

Compressed work week: fewer days worked per week with the same total hours. Examples: 4 days of 10 hours (40 hours); or 9-hour days with an extra day off every other week ("Happy Fridays"). It gives employees better work-life balance. A point of attention for HR is keeping employees accountable for their hours.

Artificial intelligence. Like robotics replaced physical tasks, AI can support or replace mental tasks. Example: a call centre system analyzes the caller's voice answers, determines the reason for the call, routes it to the right service area and gives the representative synthesized information. In accounting, AI can do the heavy lifting on reports so accountants focus on value-added tasks such as client management and validation. Kai-Fu Lee (Sinovation Ventures) expects accountants, factory workers, truckers, paralegals and radiologists to face a disruption comparable to farmers in the Industrial Revolution, with the pace of replacement accelerating and affecting both highly trained and poorly educated workers.

Key terms (4.7)

Autonomy, compressed work week, ergonomics, feedback, flex time, industrial engineering, job, job analysis, job description, job design, job enlargement, job enrichment, job family, position, skill variety, task identity, task significance, telecommuting, teamwork, NOC code. All are explained above.

Summary (4.8)

Job analysis systematically identifies a job's duties and requirements and underpins HR planning, recruitment, selection, training, appraisal, compensation and legal compliance. It distinguishes essential from non-essential duties, which is crucial for avoiding discrimination. The job description summarizes tasks and requirements; the job specification lists the KSAs needed. Job design shapes content, methods and relationships of jobs; the Job Characteristics Model links five core characteristics to three psychological states and to motivation and performance. Design approaches range from efficiency-driven industrial engineering to job enlargement, job enrichment and ergonomics, and current issues include telecommuting, teams, flex time, compressed work weeks and AI.